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Effects of Hoovering Activities on Biological Contaminants and Particulate Matter Levels in Main Prayer Halls of Malaysian Mosques

Nur Baitul Izati Rasli1 , Nor Azam Ramli1 * , Mohd Rodzi Ismail2 , Syabiha Shith1 , Noor Faizah Fitri Md Yusof1 , Nazatul Syadia Zainordin3 , Maher El-Bayoumi4 and Amni Umirah Mohamad Nazir1

1 Environmental Assessment and Clean Air Research (EACAR) School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Engineering Campus, Nibong Tebal, 14300 Penang Malaysia

2 School of Housing Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), USM, 11800 Penang Malaysia

3 Faculty of Environmental Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, 43400 Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia

4 Energy and Environmental Research Center, Israa University, Al Rimal, P.O. Box 1273 Gaza Palestine

Corresponding author Email: nurbaitulizati@gmail

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.14.1.12

In Malaysia, carpets are commonly used as finishing flooring material in the main prayer hall of mosques. In cleaning carpets, hoovering has been the most popular method, but it directly triggers the uplifting of dust that may contain bacteria and fungi. Hoovering activities and ventilation strategies (air conditioning split units (ACSUs) or by active ventilation (non-ACSUs)) can affect the prevalence of bacterial and fungal growth. This study aimed to establish the total bacterial counts, total fungal counts and also PM10 concentrations under different ventilation strategies (ACSUs and non-ACSUs) in the main prayer halls of mosques. Identification of bacterial and fungal species also took place in this study. Sampling was performed in 25 mosque buildings (17 ACSUs and 8 non-ACSUs) with carpeted flooring on Zohor-Asar and Friday-Asar prayer sessions at Pulau Pinang, Malaysia. Results revealed that the total bacterial counts, total fungal counts and mean PM10 concentrations were higher in mosques with ACSUs than in mosques with non-ACSUs at concentrations ranging from 166cfu/m3 to 660 cfu/m3, from 118 cfu/m3 to 660 cfu/m3 and from 11.15 ± 9.32 µg/m3 to 49.30 ± 13.13 µg/m3, respectively. The total bacterial counts exceeded the acceptable guideline limit by the Industrial Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality (ICOP), but the total fungal counts and PM10 concentrations did not. In some mosques, the total bacterial and fungal counts did not decrease even after hoovering activities were completed. The dominant types of bacteria found in the mosque buildings were Staphylococcus spp., Bacillus spp. and Micrococci spp., whilst the dominant fungal species was Aspergillus niger. Although the findings were not alarming, care should be taken by mosques authorities especially while and after hoovering, to ensure that, the indoor air quality in mosques are being maintained within the permissible limit to protect worshippers from being exposed to bacterial and fungal.

Airborne Particulate Matters; Air Conditioning Split Units; Biological Contaminants; Indoor Air Quality; Ventilation System

Copy the following to cite this article:

Rasli N. B. I, Ramli N. A, Ismail M. R, Shith S, Yusof N. F. F. M, Zainordin N. S, El-Bayoumi M, Nazir A. U. M. Effects of Hoovering Activities on Biological Contaminants and Particulate Matter Levels in Main Prayer Halls of Malaysian Mosques. Curr World Environ 2019;14(1). DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.14.1.12

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Rasli N. B. I, Ramli N. A, Ismail M. R, Shith S, Yusof N. F. F. M, Zainordin N. S, El-Bayoumi M, Nazir A. U. M. Effects of Hoovering Activities on Biological Contaminants and Particulate Matter Levels in Main Prayer Halls of Malaysian Mosques. Curr World Environ 2019;14(1). Available from: https://bit.ly/2tSA3b6


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Article Publishing History

Received: 2019-01-08
Accepted: 2019-03-06
Reviewed by: Orcid Orcid Manoj Pandurang Wagh
Second Review by: Orcid Orcid Maria Alzira Pimenta
Final Approval by: Dr. Gopal Krishan

Introduction

Problems with indoor air quality are important risk factors of human health in low-, middle and high-income countries.1,2 The concentrations of certain pollutants in indoor air may be 2 to 5 times and occasionally more than 100 times higher than those in outdoor air.3,4 An indoor environment has numerous emission sources, such as materials, temperature, humidity, ventilation, air exchange between outdoor and indoor environments, human activities,5, 6 topography, micro-environmental conditions and amount of dust in air7 which may influence indoor pollution concentrations including biological contaminants.Understanding and identifying the sources and relationships of biological contaminants with the environment are important because biological contaminants have been implicated in many diseases.2

Indoor air quality at places of worship may be of concern for sensitive or susceptible subgroups within certain populations because of their potential allergic effects. Mosques are partially or fully occupied for about 1 h for five intermittent periods during the day. Moreover, worshippers do not arrive or depart at the same time. Instead, they do so, on the basis of the time of congregation. Maximum occupancy is expected during the congregation of each prayer, which lasts about 20 min, and occupant density increases to more than 1.5 persons/m2.9 Many existing mosques have installed air-conditioning split units (ACSU) to cool the air inside mosques with a high indoor temperature in tropical areas. However, the use of ACSUs may produce moisture that favours bacterial and fungal growth.10 Khan and Karuppayil11 indicated that bacteria land fungal spores can be introduced into the air by anthropogenic means such as talking, sneezing, coughing, skin shedding, walking, ventilation ducts, carpets, soil and rice plants.12,13

In Turkey and Saudi Arabia,14,15 inadequate ventilation rates and high CO2, PM2.5 and biological pollutant concentrations are amongst the problems faced by mosque buildings. However, many researchers, for example, Noman et al.,16 focused only on thermal comfort and disregarded biological contaminants in mosques in Malaysia. Studying air and biological contaminants may help build mitigation strategies to decrease the negative effects of these contaminants, especially in crowded areas. Malaysia’s Industry Code of Practice (ICOP) recommended that the acceptable guideline limits for bacteria and fungi are 500 and 1000 cfu/m3, respectively.17This study investigates the total bacterial counts, total fungal counts and PM10 concentration in the main prayer halls of mosques with different ventilation strategies. It also looked into the dominant types of bacterial and fungal within these significant parts of mosques.

Materials and Methods

Study Area

Biological contaminants sampling and particulate matter monitoring were performed in 25 mosques in Pulau Pinang, Malaysia. The distribution of the selected mosques is shown in Figure 1 of the 25 mosques, 17 were categorised as mosques with ACSUs, and 8 were grouped as mosques with non-ACSUs.

Figure 1: Location of ACSUs and non-ACSUs mosques around Pulau Pinang, Malaysia (map not to scale)
Click here to view Figure


Collection of Samples and Analysis

Monitoring schedules during Zohor-Asar and Friday-Asar prayers are shown in Table 1. An airborne particle counter (Lighthouse Handheld 3016 IAQ) used to measure the PM10 concentration was placed on a tripod, and monitoring was conducted at 1 m above the ground with 1 min intervals in the main prayer halls for 5 h to 5.5 h. Lighthouse Handheld 3016 IAQ was equipped with a laser diode light source and collection optics for particle detection.

Table 1: Monitoring schedule during Zohor-Asar and Friday-Asar prayers in the main prayer halls

Zohor-Asar Sessions

Time (hrs)

Friday-Asar Sessions

Time (hrs)

Before Zohor prayer

1200 – 1300

Before Friday prayer

1200 – 1300

During Zohor prayer

1300 – 1400

During Friday prayer

1300 – 1430

Between Zohor and Asar prayers

1400 – 1600

Between Friday and Asar prayers

1430 – 1600

During Asar prayer

1600 – 1700 or 1730

During Asar prayer

1600 – 1700 or 1730


Air samples were collected to measure the total count of both parameters in colony forming units per cubic metre of air and to identify the types of biological contaminants from the selected mosques. Bacteria and fungi were sampled under two conditions, namely, before and after the carpeted areas in the main prayer hall of the mosques were hoovered. The carpets were hoovered at an area of 9 m2 (3 m × 3 m), and the samples were collected at 0.6 m above the ground level by using a microbial air sampler (100 Model Eco Pump, Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) with a flow rate of 100 l/min and a sampling time of 5 min. The bacteria and fungi were impacted in 20 ml of a nutrient plate containing tryptic soy agar and Sabouraud dextrose agar with chloramphenicol, respectively. The nutrient plates for bacteria and fungi were prepared in accordance with the sampler manufacturer’s recommendations by referring to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Method 0800 – Bioaerosol Sampling (Indoor Air).18 The stage hole was sterilised with 70% ethanol solution when the collection dishes were changed to prevent cross-contamination. The agar dishes were then transferred to our laboratory. The bacterial and fungal specimens were incubated at 35 ± 1 °C for 24 h and 25 ± 1 °C for 5 days, respectively.19 The collected samples were kept in a cool box and transferred to our laboratory. Colony forming units per cubic meter of air sampled (cfu/m3) are calculated as follows (Eq. 1).20

Total bacterial or fungal counts (cfu/m3)      ...(1)

Bacteria were partly identified using a Microgen GNA kit and Microgen ID software as extensively elaborated by Hussain et al.,21 Gram-negative bacteria were determined via an oxidase test performed by using Microgen GNA+B kit (for oxidase positive) and Microgen GNA kit (for oxidase negative). The culture suspension was prepared by emulsifying a single colony from a 24h culture plate into 0.85% saline and mixed thoroughly. Biochemical test wells were inoculated with the suspension. The sample was then incubated aerobically at 35°C for 20–24h.

For Gram-positive cocci, catalase and coagulase tests were conducted using Microgen ID Staph for catalase positive and Gram-positive cocci in clusters. A culture suspension was prepared by emulsifying a single colony of the target bacteria from a 24 h culture plate to the suspension supplied in the kit, and the sample was mixed thoroughly. Biochemical test wells were inoculated with the suspension, and the samples were incubated aerobically for 20–24 h.

A catalase test was performed to identify Gram-positive rod bacteria. The isolated bacteria should be tested Gram-positive rods, catalase positive and spore positive. A culture suspension was prepared by emulsifying a single colony of the target bacteria from a 24 h culture plate in the suspension supplied in the kit, and the sample was mixed thoroughly. Then, the biochemical test wells were inoculated with the suspensions and incubated at 30 °C for 24 and 48 h. In all of the methods, the bacterial and fungal species were identified on the basis of their specific codes by using the Microgen ID software.

Results and Discussion

Table 2 shows the total bacterial and fungal counts in the main prayer halls in mosques with ACSUs and non-ACSUs. The total bacterial counts in mosques with ACSUs before and after carpet hoovering ranged from 166 cfu/m3 to 660 cfu/m3 and from 162 cfu/m3 to 620 cfu/m3, respectively. The total bacterial counts in mosques with non-ACSUs before and after carpet hoovering ranged from 67 cfu/m3 to 502 cfu/m3 and from 91 cfu/m3 to 390 cfu/m3, respectively. The results showed that the total bacterial counts in mosques with non-ACSUs after hoovering activities did not exceed the acceptable guideline limit by ICOP17 (500 cfu/m3).

The total fungal counts in the mosques with ACSUs were 132 to 660 cfu/m3 before carpet hoovering was performed. After carpet hoovering was conducted, the total fungal counts in the mosques were 118–658 cfu/m3. Meanwhile, the total fungal counts in mosques with non-ACSUs before and after carpet hoovering ranged from 50 to 576 cfu/m3 and from 70 cfu/m3 to 502 cfu/m3, respectively. The results showed that the total fungal counts before and after hoovering activities in mosques with ACSUs and non-ACSUs did not exceed the acceptable guideline limit by ICOP17 (1000 cfu/m3). GoÅ‚ofit-Szymczak22 suggested that air-conditioning systems should be efficiently and regularly maintained to ensure the proper hygienic quality of buildings and minimise biological contamination levels.

Table 2: Total bacterial counts and total fungal counts in the main prayer halls in mosques with ACSUs and non-ACSUs

 

Sample

Total Bacterial Counts (cfu/m3)

Total Fungal Counts (cfu/m3)

BH

AH

BH

AH

ACSU

MQS15

166

162

388

336

MQS07

320

272

70

72

MQS04

330

188

164

52

MQS03

344

330

144

208

MQS14

396

528

288

334

MQS09

410

610

94

62

MQS06

414

300

72

118

MQS08

418

620

60

50

MQS11

424

458

76

100

MQS17

450

552

660

658

MQS02

492

384

64

108

MQS16

512

490

198

210

MQS10

514

518

132

158

MQS01

526

470

194

212

MQS12

536

482

534

432

MQS13

576

396

288

314

MQS05

660

430

382

508

Non-ACSU

MQS24

67

91

50

70

MQS25

272

196

576

502

MQS20

312

224

306

240

MQS23

360

260

198

178

MQS22

370

390

200

76

MQS18

378

94

144

134

MQS19

484

132

300

216

MQS21

502

320

318

222

*Ranking is based on the total bacterial counts before hoovering; BH: Before hoovering; AH: After hoovering


Table 3 shows the mean PM10 concentrations in the main prayer halls in mosques with ACSUs and non-ACSUs. The mean PM10 concentrations in mosques with ACSUs (29.44 µg/m3) were higher than that in mosques with non-ACSUs (26.46 µg/m3). Mean PM10 concentrations for both ACSUs and non-ACSUs did not exceed the acceptable guideline limit by ICOP17 (150 µg/m3). However, the mean PM10 concentrations in MQS12 in mosques with ACSUs were the highest and exceeded the acceptable guideline limit by ICOP17(150 µg/m3) because of the mosque construction. Thus, the PM10 concentration in MQS12 was excluded in the average results. It is noteworthy to mention that airborne particulate matter is one of the major sources that can influence the bacteria and fungi growth.23

Table 3: Mean PM10 concentrations in the main prayer halls in mosques with ACSUs and non-ACSUs

ACSU Mosques (n=16)

Non- ACSU Mosques (n=8)

Sample

Mean ± SDPM10 (µg/m3)

Sample

Mean ± SDPM10 (µg/m3)

MQS17

49.30 ± 13.13

MQS25

49.80 ± 6.37

MQS13

48.48 ± 6.98

MQS21

46.59 ± 40.09

MQS14

40.88 ± 5.33

MQS20

41.11 ± 9.43

MQS16

40.80 ± 43.05

MQS23

24.30 ± 10.11

MQS01

32.26 ± 2.98

MQS19

15.36 ± 12.31

MQS05

31.04 ± 11.99

MQS22

13.44 ± 18.76

MQS03

29.61 ± 8.98

MQS24

10.83 ± 8.33

MQS15

29.04 ± 2.03

MQS18

10.24 ± 9.79

MQS06

28.74 ± 7.81

 

 

MQS02

26.54 ± 30.61

 

 

MQS09

25.91 ± 15. 06

 

 

MQS08

22.71 ± 11.17

 

 

MQS07

22.47 ± 9.64

 

 

MQS04

19.82 ± 4.38

 

 

MQS10

12.22 ± 9.54

 

 

MQS11

11.15 ± 9.32

 

 

Average mean

29.44

 

26.46

*MQS12: 177.44 ± 89.75: Outlier point due to the mosque construction; n: number of data; SD: Standard Deviation; ACSU: Air Conditioning Split Unit


Fig. 2 and 3 respectively show the differences in the total bacterial and fungal counts on the samples incubated before and after hoovering activities in mosques with ACSUs and non-ACSUs. The results indicated that the percentage of the total bacterial counts in both mosques decreased by 64.71% and 75.00% after hoovering activities were performed, respectively. By comparison, the percentage of the total fungal counts in mosques with ACSUs increased by 64.71% after hoovering activities were accomplished. The percentage of the total fungal counts in mosques with non-ACSUs decreased by 87.50% after hoovering activities were completed.

Figure 2: Changes in total bacterial counts on samples incubated before and after hoovering activities in mosques with (a) ACSUs and (b) non-ACSUs
Click here to view Figure


In some mosques, total bacterial and fungal counts do not decrease after hoovering activities because fine particles may not be trapped by the filter of a vacuum cleaner andmay be resuspended in air, even though large particles are trapped by the airstream and deposited into the filter during hoovering.24 Consequently, bacteria and fungi will be lifted into the air. In the present study, hoovering activities are inefficient in removing all bacteria and fungi on carpets. Durand et al.,25 found that dust collected by using a vacuum cleaner is dependent on the type of carpet, humidity and characteristics of a house. Knibbs et al.,26 stated that vacuum cleaner bags can also transmit considerable amounts of bioaerosols, especially airborne bacteria. Dust plays an important role in the aerosolisation and transportation of bacteria and may have important consequences associated with the spread of diseases.27

Figure 3: Changes in total fungal counts on samples incubated before and after hoovering activities in mosques with (a) ACSUs and (b) non-ACSUs
Click here to view Figure


A total of 10 types of bacteria and 13 types of fungi were identified in mosques with ACSUs (Figure 4) and non-ACSUs (Figure 5). The identified bacteria consisted of Staphylococcus spp., Bacillus spp., Micrococci spp., Gram-negative bacteria–1 type, Gram-negative bacteria, Candida spp.(yeast), Streptococcus spp., Gram-negative bacteria–2 types, yeast and Pseudomonas spp. Moreover, the highest percentage of bacterial in mosques with ACSUs and non-ACSUs (before and after hoovering) were Staphylococcus spp.(100.00%) and Bacillus spp.(100.00%). The lowest percentages of bacteria recorded in mosques with ACSUs before carpet hoovering were Gram-negative bacteria–2 types, yeast and Pseudomonas spp. with 5.88%, whereas yeast was not detected after carpet hoovering was performed. In mosques with non-ACSUs, yeast, Streptococcus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. were not detected before carpet hoovering. Similarly, Gram-negative bacteria–2 types, yeast and Pseudomonas spp. were not observed after carpet hoovering. Few studies have been performed on airborne microorganisms in mosque buildings7, 15, 28, 29 in countries with a desert climate but not in countries in the tropics. These results showed that airborne bacteria are the main microbial contaminants. However, Pseudomonas bacteria have been found as the main emission sources from spray humidifiers.15

Figure 4: Bacterial types in mosques with ACSUs and non-ACSUs
Click here to view Figure


The identified fungi in this study included Aspergillus spp., A. niger, Moniliasithophila, Penicillium spp., Rhizopus spp.,Monilliellaacetoabutans, Mucor spp., Trichoderma spp., Cladosporium spp., Absidiaspp., Sporotrichumspp., Moniliaspp.and Moniliellaspp.The fungi with the highest percentages in mosques with ACSUs before and after carpet hoovering were dominated by Aspergillus spp.(70.59%) and A.niger (82.35%), respectively. Some of the fungal types were not detected before (Moniliaspp.and Moniliellaspp.) and after (Sporotrichumspp., Moniliaspp.and Moniliellaspp.) carpet hoovering. A.niger was the only fungus with the highest percentage in mosques with non-ACSUs before and after carpet hoovering, and their values were 100.00% and 87.50%, respectively. In mosques with non-ACSUs, Cladosporium spp., Absidiaspp.and Moniliellaspp.were not detected before carpet hoovering was conducted. After carpet hoovering was performed, Cladosporium spp. and Sporotrichumspp. were also not detected. Hameed and Habeeballah15 found that Aspergillus species have the highest percentage and are the most common fungal types inside mosques.

Figure 5: Fungal types in mosques with ACSUs and non-ACSUs
Click here to view Figure


Conclusions

In this study, 25 mosques with carpeted flooring were examined on Zohor or Friday and Asar prayer times in Pulau Pinang, Malaysia. The results demonstrated that the total bacterial counts, total fungal counts, and mean PM10 concentrations, were higher in mosques with ACSUs than in mosques without. Their concentrations (ACSUs) ranged from 166 cfu/m3 to 660 cfu/m3, 118 cfu/m3 to 660 cfu/m3 and 11.15 ± 9.32 µg/m3 to 49.30 ± 13.13 µg/m3,respectively. The total bacterial counts slightly exceeded the acceptable guideline limit by ICOP, nevertheless, the total fungal counts and PM10 concentrations did not exceed the limit, possibly due to a higher volume of air circulating inside mosques with ACSUs.The moisture caused by the installation of ACSUs in mosques could be favourable to bacterial and fungal growth. In some mosques, the total bacterial and fungal counts did not decrease after hoovering. These findings suggested that hoovering activities were not fully efficient in removing all biological contaminants from the carpet. The dominant types of bacteria found were Staphylococcus spp., Bacillus spp. and Micrococci spp. On the other hand, dominant fungal species was Aspergillus niger. In conclusion, while carrying out hoovering activities, indoor air within acceptable quality should be maintained via suitable ventilation strategies in mosques, to protect worshippers from being exposed to health risks due to infections from bacterial and fungal uplifted from carpets.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing for financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the Ministry of Science Technology and Innovation Malaysia under SCIENCE FUND 1001/PAWAM/6013607 (06-01-05-SF0766) grant.

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